The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, against a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia under King Darius I to subjugate Greece. The Greek army inflicted a crushing defeat on the more numerous Persians, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars.
Background
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples. Moreover, the Persian King Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule. Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe, subjugating Thrace, and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia. Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable.
However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability. Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.
Second phase: the Greeks attack and the lines make contact
Herodotus describes the Athenians advancing at a run when their line was ready. Historians debate how literally to interpret this account, because heavily equipped infantry would have found a long run difficult. One reconstruction has the soldiers marching for most of the approach and running only when they entered effective arrow range; another allows for changes in formation during the advance. The uncertainty illustrates the difference between a vivid ancient narrative and a detailed reconstruction of battlefield movement. What the account emphasizes is the Greek decision to close with the Persian army rather than remain exposed at a distance.
Herodotus portrays the Persian response as surprise at the apparent boldness of an attack by infantry lacking cavalry and archers of their own. He also stresses that the Athenians overcame the fear associated with the Persian forces. These comments belong to his interpretation of the victory, rather than to an independently recorded conversation among Persian soldiers. The Greek line eventually reached the opposing troops, bringing the armies into close combat. The soldiers’ armor offered protection during the approach, although the precise effects of the Persian missile fire cannot be reconstructed from the narrative alone.
Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly. Some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle. Either way, the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat, and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens. The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides. The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing, and seeing that the opportunity was lost, the Persians turned about and returned to Asia.
Connected with this episode, Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids, the prominent Athenian aristocratic family, and that a "shield-signal" had been given after the battle. Although many interpretations of this have been offered, it is impossible to tell whether this was true, and if so, what exactly the signal meant. On the next day, the Spartan army arrived at Marathon, having covered the 220 kilometers (140 mi) in only three days. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.