China's imperial examinations long served to select officials, with content and organization changing across dynasties. The Qing abolished the system in 1905. Its abolition was tied to the transformation of modern education. Imperial examinations differ from today's school admissions tests in their purposes and structures.

Historical background

The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than by birth started early in Chinese history, and the first earnest use of written examinations as a method of recruitment appeared under the Sui dynasty (581–618). Its systematic implementation began during the Tang dynasty (618–907), when examinations became a regular channel for bureaucratic appointment and the dominant path to high office. It was further expanded during the Song dynasty (960–1279). The system lasted for 1,300 years until its abolition during the late Qing dynasty reforms in 1905. The key sponsors for abolition were Yuan Shikai, Yinchang, and Zhang Zhidong. Aspects of the imperial examination still exist for entry into the civil service of both China and Taiwan.

The exams served to ensure a common knowledge of writing, Chinese classics, and literary style among state officials. This common culture helped to unify the empire, and the ideal of achievement by merit gave legitimacy to imperial rule. The examination system played a significant role in tempering the power of hereditary aristocracy and military authority, and in the rise of a gentry class of scholar-bureaucrats.

General history

Tests of skill such as archery contests have existed since the Zhou dynasty (or, more mythologically, Yao). The Confucian characteristic of the later imperial exams was largely due to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han during the Han dynasty. Although some examinations did exist from the Han to the Sui dynasty, they did not offer an official avenue to government appointment, the majority of which were filled through recommendations based on qualities such as social status, morals, and ability.

The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept have their origins in the year 605 during the short-lived Sui dynasty. Its successor, the Tang dynasty, implemented imperial examinations on a relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian, ruler of Wu Zhou. Included in the expanded examination system was a military exam, but the military exam never had a significant impact on the Chinese officer corps and military degrees were seen as inferior to their civil counterpart.

Requirements

During the Sui dynasty, only those nominated by senior government officials could take the exam. This limitation was completely lifted in 622, when the first emperor of the Tang dynasty allowed men to self-nominate. Throughout the Tang dynasty, the vast majority of males were eligible to take the exam, establishing an open and inclusive system of recruitment. This practice continued in the Song dynasty, during which theoretically all adult Chinese men were eligible for the examinations.

In practice, a number of official and unofficial restrictions applied to who was able to take the imperial exams. The commoners were divided into four groups according to occupation: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Beneath the common people were the so-called "mean" people such as boat-people, beggars, sex-workers, entertainers, slaves, and low-level government employees. Among the forms of discrimination faced by the "mean" people were restriction from government office and the credential to take the imperial exam.

Procedures

Each candidate arrived at an examination compound with only a few amenities: a water pitcher, a chamber pot, bedding, food (prepared by the examinee), an inkstone, ink and brushes. Guards verified a student's identity and searched him for hidden texts such as cheat sheets. The facilities provided for the examinee consisted of an isolated room or cell with a makeshift bed, desk, and bench. Each examinee was assigned to a cell according to a pre-determined system numbered by the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches. Paper was provided by the examiners and stamped with an official seal. The examinees of the Ming and Qing periods could take up to three days and two nights writing "eight-legged essays"—literary compositions with eight distinct sections.